TOLLER’S MASSES MAN (other titles MASSES AND MAN and MAN AND THE MASSES)

Ernst Toller (1893-1939) wrote his first draft of Masses Man (Masse Mensch) in October 1919. It was his second play and it took him two and a half days to complete the first draft, but it took another year of hard work to shape it into a script ready for theatrical production. During the time he worked on this script, he was incarcerated in Fortress Niederschonenfeld, a military prison, in the Bavarian area of Germany.

                                                                   ERNST TOLLER

Toller was quickly able to set his ideas to paper since this play reflected the second major experience of his adult life.  The first was fighting on the Western Front during World War One and the second was his leadership involvement in the Munich Revolution. During six days in April 1919, after the revolution was successful, Toller served as President of the Bavarian Soviet Republic. The violent events that were part of the revolution preyed heavily on Toller’s conscientious since he despised force and hated bloodshed.  Toller had not followed his ideals. The writing of Masses Man depicts Toller working through his idealistic conflict.

Masses Man is written in the style of Expressionism. Each section of the play is designated a “Picture.”  There is a total of seven Pictures. Three of the Pictures are labelled “Dream Picture.” Toller states that these three sections of the drama are “in the visionary beyond of a dream.”  

    FIRST PICTURE. “Indicated: Backroom of a workers’ tavern.                              

                                   On whitewashed walls pictures of veterans’ clubs and                                                                  portraits of heroes of the Masses. 

                                   In the middle a large and clumsy table around which                                                                   THE WOMAN and THE WORKERS sit.”

The play is set during World War One. The factory workers are planning to go on strike to force a peace settlement. They also want their actions to create a fairer society. The Woman’s Husband arrives to speak to her privately. The workers leave. HUSBAND works for the government and wants WOMAN to relinquish her present activities. WOMAN refuses even though she realizes her actions will end the marriage.

SECOND PICTURE (Dream Picture). “Indicated: Hall of the Stock Exchange.

                                   CLERK at the desk, around him BANKERS and BROKERS.                                                        CLERK: face of THE HUSBAND.

The Bankers are rejoicing over their war earnings.  Suddenly it is announced that the battle on the Western Front is lost. The characters go into a panic over their perceived financial losses. THE COMPANION enters.  His face bears a magic resemblance to THE WOMAN, who he leads into the room. THE WOMAN addresses the BANKERS as “human beings” and fades from the scene. The money men begin to discuss holding charitable events for human beings in need.

THIRD PICTURE. The stage remains dark during the CHORUSES OF THE MASSES.

                                Then the stage brightens to indicate THE GREAT HALL.

                                “On the platform a long narrow table. THE WOMAN sits left.

                                MEN and WOMEN WORKERS tightly packed in the hall.”

THE WOMAN advocates letting the factories “be the servants of a worthy life.”

                             Suddenly out of the crowd, THE NAMELESS hurries to the platform.

                             He stands to the right of the table.

THE NAMELESS calls for more than a strike.  He claims social justice can only be won by violent Revolution. Eventually even THE WOMAN is partially persuaded.

FOURTH PICTURE (Dream Picture). “Indicated: Prison yard surrounded by high walls.

                                   Night.  In the middle of the prison yard on the ground, a lantern

                                   which weeps a faint light.”

                                   From the corners of the courtyard WORKER-GUARDS appear.

The guards sing and suddenly THE NAMELESS quietly appears and stands beside the lantern. The guards dance as THE NAMELESS plays a concertina. THE CONDEMNED MAN, with a rope around his neck appears. More Condemned Men continue to join this dance of death. The scene grows to include HUSBAND. As everyone is converted to the thinking of the masses, THE WOMAN continues to maintain “Only Man counts.”

FIFTH PICTURE. Indicated: THE HALL. At long table THE WOMAN sits left.

                               THE NAMELESS sits right. WORKER-GUARDS at doors.

                               MEN and WOMEN WORKERS huddle at tables.

                                        
                                             SOLDIERS ARRIVE TO ARREST LEADER

OTHER WORKERS bring reports about the fighting that is taking place in the streets.  The MASSES are losing the battle. The Hall is suddenly surrounded by SOLDIERS. When they enter the hall, THE WOMAN is identified as leader and she is shackled.

SIXTH PICTURE (Dream Picture). “Boundless space. In its core, a cage, lit by

                               a flickering shaft of light. Inside crouching down, THE

                               SHACKLED PRISONER (face of THE WOMAN).

                               Next to the cage, THE COMPANION in the figure

                               of THE WARDER.”

THE SHACKLED PRISONER is taunted by SHADOWS and BANKERS until he declares his guilt. The SHACKLED is freed by the WARDER, who declares “You are healed.”

                                               Beginning moments of PICTURE 6

PICTURE SEVEN. Prison Cell.  THE WOMAN sits at table.

THE HUSBAND arrives to tell her that she has been found innocent of the shootings during the strike. They argue and he leaves. The NAMELESS arrives to free her.  They debate about the MASSES. He grows tired of her position and leaves without freeing her. THE PRIEST arrives to ease her final time before leading her out of the cell to her execution.  After a few seconds, two female PRISONERS enter the cell.  They take a few items left by THE WOMAN, but quickly put them back after they hear a gun volley from outside.

Toller’s sense of time and place are clearly delineated throughout the play. What my plot summary does not include is the emotional power of this play. Both THE WOMAN and THE NAMELESS are passionate about their positions and this heightened level of political emotion leaps off the page.

I originally knew this play by the title Man and the Masses. This title was given by Louis H. Untermeyer (1885-1977) who translated it in 1923 for American audiences. The original British translation is titled Masses and Man. Vera Mendel translated this version sometime during 1923-24. I prefer the title Masses Man as translated by Alan Raphael Pearlman and published in 2000. (This is the version I read for this post.) Masses Man makes a clearer statement about the play for me. It has been understood that the earlier two titles refer to THE WOMAN who wants the strike to win the peace while the masses are persuaded to turn to revolution for the future of a better society.  For me Masses Man refers to THE NAMELESS who persuades the masses to make their planned action into a violent revolution.

The first production of this play was staged on November 15, 1920 at the Nurnberg Stadttheater. The authorities had allowed a series of private performances for trade unionists. For the fourth performance on November 26^th about one hundred tickets were offered at the door to non-unionists. Some of these tickets were purchased by individuals of different political beliefs and they staged disturbances during the performance. This event prohibited the theatre from presenting more performances in Nurembreg. Two more private performances of this production moved to the city of Furth in northern Bavaria. These events occurred prior to the play appearing in print.

In February 1921 an amateur production was staged by the Municipal Committee for Adult Education in Chemnitz located in eastern Germany.  

The second professional production opened on September 29, 1921 and it was staged by Jurgen Fehling (1885-1968) at the Berlin Volksbuhne--a major theatre in Europe at this time. This staged version of Masses Man became its most renown production. The set designer was Hans Strohbach (1891-1949) and Heinz Thiessen (1887-1971) composed the music. Mary Dietrich played THE WOMAN, Ferdinand Asper’s role was THE NAMELESS and Heinz Bernecker, HUSBAND.

A production opened in Moscow in 1923 at the Majakowski Theater. During the Spring of 1924 Masses Man was staged in both the United States and England. The American translation of the play was used for both productions. Man and the Masses opened in New York City on April 14, 1924 at the Garrick Theatre.  It was produced by the Theatre Guild and it ran for thirty-two performances. Lee Simonson (1885-1967) designed the scenery and staged this production. 

The London production opened May 1924 during the week of twentieth. It was produced by the Stage Society at the New Theatre. The initial performances were for private audiences, but it opened for the public later. Sybil Thorndike (1882-1976) played THE WOMAN and George Hayes (1888-1967) played THE NAMELESS. John Foulds (1880-1939) composed the music.

Masses Man has achieved the distinction world-wide of being the most well-known                 Expressionist play.

   NOTES:

1.      Alan Raphael Pearlman. Ernest Toller PLAYS ONE. London: Oberon Books Ltd., 2000.

2.      THE WOMAN is also known in other translations as SONIA IRENE L.

3.      This blog also has posts on other plays by Toller: Transformation and Hinkemann.

4.      PHOTOS: Toller drawing by S. J. Woolf from Theatre Guild photo and it appeared in NEW YORK TIMES on August 12, 1923 (page 18).

      Production Pictures 5 & 6 are from the production directed by Jurgen Fehling. These

      photos appear in same book cited in number 1 Note.

LULA VOLLMER’S SUN-UP

Lula Vollmer (1898-1955) was born in Keyser, North Carolina. After she moved to New York City in 1918, she wrote her first play titled Sun-Up. It is set in the Appalachian mountains of her home state. Vollmer was one of the early playwrights to write a folk-play. This type of drama represented Americans who lived in isolated locations of the United States and retained a way of life that was not based on current news, recent inventions and latest fashions. Vollmer’s characters are depicted as living in a manner similar to those of the early mountain settlers.

Lula Vollmer

Sun-Up was inspired by an anecdote Vollmer heard in 1918 about a mountain boy who exclaimed when he first arrived at his army camp: “Air this hyar France?” It is interesting that after World War One, the returning soldiers, who were from the mountains, began to dismantle some of the barriers of isolation that underpinned the old ways of mountain life.

Sun-Up is set in the remote mountain cabin of Lisa Cagle, a widow whose husband made illegal whiskey known as “moonshine.” It is established in the play that many years earlier Mrs. Cagle’s husband had been killed by a federal revenue agent. Act One begins at noon on June 5, 1917. Mrs Gagle’s son, named Rufe, initiates the action for the plot. Unbeknownst to his mother, Rufe has registered for the draft. As a result of this he asks Emmy Todd, his girlfriend, to marry him.

Mrs. Gagle is bitterly hostile to the national government and its laws. She is opposed to Rufe going to fight for “The Law.” She strongly believes the government is responsible for the deaths of her father and husband. She fears the government will also kill her son.

Act Two takes place in the same cabin on a late September, 1917 afternoon. Rufe and Emmy are married in the cabin and immediately afterward he leaves for the army training camp. Rufe has very little knowledge about the war. He has no idea who the Germans are.  He also believes France is about forty miles from his cabin, somewhere near the town of Ashville. He gives Emmy and her brother Bud instructions to take care of his Mother. 

   

Act Three, Scene 1 takes place in February, 1918 at midnight. Once again it is the main room in Mrs. Gagle’s cabin. A blizzard is raging which makes the door of the cabin shake. Mrs Cagle holds a yellow envelope in her hand. It is from the government.  Since she cannot read, she needs to wait for Emmy to return. A young man comes to her door and she lets him in. He is a deserter from his army camp.

Act Three, Scene 2 is a few hours later. Mrs. Gagle wakes Emmy and the deserter. The Sheriff comes to the cabin looking for the deserter. He tells Mrs. Gagle the deserter is the son of the revenue officer who, many years ago, killed her husband. This concluding scene is exciting and moving. The play ends with Mrs. Gagle having an epiphany that demonstrates a total change of heart.

Although Sun-Up was written in 1918, it was not produced until 1923.  Vollmer worked in the business office at the Theatre Guild, but her play was not presented by that group. It was produced by the Players Company at the Provincetown Theatre in New York City opening on May 24, 1923. The May 25, 1923 review in the New York Times proclaimed: “As thunderous an ovation as the tiny Provincetown Theatre could hold followed the final curtain last night of a “Sun-Up.” It praised both the acting and the work of the playwright. Since Sun-Up was so successful at the box office, it was eventually transferred to the larger Lenox Hill Theatre and then the Princess Theatre, It closed on May 3, 1924 in New York after a run of forty-nine weeks.

Lucille La Verne (1872-1945) was an established Broadway actress when she starred as Widow Cagle. La Verne played this role for more than 3,000 stage performances. She played Widow Cagle when Sun-Up was produced at the Vaudeville Theatre in London. This production opened on May 4, 1925 and later was transferred to the Lyric Theatre. On August 13^th King George and Queen Mary attended a performance. When La Verne received an ovation at the end of the performance, all the royal party joined in the applause. The run in London lasted for eight months where it played for 234 performances. Sun-Up also toured the smaller cities in Great Britain for a year.

La Verne produced the Broadway revival of the play and starred in it. It opened October 22, 1928 and played for 101 performances until January, 1929. During the following summer this production toured to Paris, France and it opened at Les Maturins on June 20, 1929. Other European cities that saw different productions of Sun-Up include Budapest and Amsterdam. The play had been translated into Dutch for that production.

During the two seasons of 1927-28 and 1928-29, Sun-Up was the most popular American play produced by many of the 475 Little Theatres in the United States.  The Manhattan Little Theatre Club, Inc. produced a second New York City revival of the play on May 9, 1930 at the Waldorf Theatre. Since this large theatre had the capacity to seat over 1,000 persons, the production was only scheduled for one performance. 

 

Sun-Up became a silent film in 1925. It starred Lucille La Verne and Conrad Nagel (1897-1970) who played Rufe. This sixty minute film was released by Metro-Goldwyn Mayer September 20, 1925.

The play was published in April, 1924 by Brentano’s, Inc.  They produced their eighth printing by February, 1932. Burns Mantle included Sun-Up in his volume The Best Plays of 1923-24. The script also appeared in Representative American Plays by Arthur Hobson Quinn (1875-1960).

The London Times announced on May 22, 1939: “Dame Sybil Thorndike made her first appearance on television last week as the Widow Cagle in Miss Lula Vollmer’s play Sun-Up.” Thorndike is praised for her remarkable performance particularly in the final scene of the play. The article states: “it is a tremendous scene and Dame Sybil Thorndike rose to it.”

In 1954 Sun-Up was presented by the Provincetown Playhouse as a one-act opera. The New York Times discussed this production on November 11, 1954. The opera was created by Tadeusz Kassern (1904-1957) a Polish composer living in the United States. Lula Vollmer attended the opening performance of the opera.

I found reviews of a more recent production of this remarkable play. The Metropolitan Playhouse in New York City produced Sun-Up in March of 2003.  The play and the production received positive comments.

I am impressed by this American folk-drama that had the ability to speak to people of different nations. The directness of the characters and the situation still resonant today.

NOTE: The photo appeared in The Sphere (London) on 16 May 1925.